The French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes challenged old ways of thinking about science. Descartes, for whom the Cartesian system of philosophy is named, argued that doubt and reason are both necessary for determining truth, and that the world and everything in it operates according to mechanical principles.

If I found any new truths in the sciences, I can say that they follow from, or depend on, five or six principal problems which I succeeded in solving and which I regard as so many battles where the fortunes of war were on my side.




If we possessed a thorough knowledge of all the parts of the seed of any animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely mathematical and certain, deduce the whole conformation and figure of each of its members, and, conversely if we knew several peculiarities of this conformation, we would from those deduce the nature of its seed.

What is being expressed here?

And, in the context of this class, this is his most important thought:

By a method I mean certain and simple rules such that, if a man observe them accurately, he shall never assume what is false is true.

What is being stated here?

The Mechanical/Clockwork Universe

Descartes Method of "Reduction":

As a multitude of laws often furnishes excuses for vice, so that a state is much better governed when it has but few, and those few strictly observed, so in place of the great number of precepts of which logic is composed, I believed that I should find the following four sufficient, provided that I made a firm and constant resolve not once to omit to observe them.

• The first was, never to accept anything as true when I did not recognize it clearly to be so, that is to say, to carefully avoid precipitation and prejudice, and to include in my opinions nothing beyond that which should present itself so clearly and so distinctly to my mind that I might have no occasion to doubt it.

• The second was, to divide each of the difficulties which I should examine into as many parts as were possible, and as should be required for its better solution.

• The third was, to conduct my thoughts in order, by beginning with the simplest objects, and those most easy to know, so as to mount little by little, as if by steps, to the most complex knowledge, and even assuming an order among those which do not naturally precede one another.

• And the last was, to make everywhere enumerations so complete, and reviews so wide, that I should be sure of omitting nothing. . . .

  
  
  
  

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Descartes' mechanical philosophy was to completely revolutionize science, and thus have far-reaching religious implications. The organic world view of Aristotelianism had been constructed in terms of sympathies, correspondences, purposes and the notion of 'form' as distinct from 'matter'. This was to be replaced with a vastly contrasting mechanical view:

matter (is) made up of atoms, colors occur by the reflection of light waves of differing lengths, bodies obey the law of inertia, and the sun is the center of our solar system

In addition, Descartes argued for the conservation of motion. At creation, God had injected a certain amount of motion into the universe and this total quantity of motion had been conserved ever since.

Descartes also pronounced that a vacuum was impossible: Motion is transmitted from one object to another by contact, and there are no empty spaces between. What seems to us empty space is merely extremely extended, fine matter.

One of the most dangerous implications of Descartes' mechanical universe is that it raises sensitive questions about God's relationship to nature

What is the dangerous implication here?

As mechanical philosophy gained support in Descartes' native France, so did moves towards a centralised Government control .

Descartes' was quick to draw a parallel between the role of Ruler and Creator,

• God sets up mathematical laws in nature as a king sets up laws in his kingdom. To take the analogy further, just as the king must make sure his laws are obeyed, so God remains to preside over nature.

Descartes' belief in the existence of a rational human soul is based on the principle of the indivisibility of the human ego and underpinned by an unquestioning acceptance of the fundamental beliefs in one's own existence and the existence of God.

For Descartes the human body and the human mind were discrete entities. The human soul, unlike the mechanical world, was something that could not be broken down

One of the most challenging attacks on this aspect of Descartes' system was that if mind and matter are so radically different, how do they interact? Descartes' reaction to this criticism was that the pineal gland in humans formed a point of interaction between body and soul.

The inadequacy of this explanation was highlighted by the discovery that the pineal gland is also present in dogs, while Descartes had preserved the rational soul for only the human species.

the world is a Machine, but we must not forget that there is a Mechanic and that He designed the Machine for purposes which we might try to understand and that He is always present to supervise and maintain it Universality!

Summary of the Mechanical Philosophy:

1) world is a plenum of matter whirling about in large and small vortices; no void;

2) God originally created the world by putting matter into motion according to certain laws; time took care of the rest; everything is matter in motion.

3) Only two real or primary substances in the universe

a) matter (res extensa)--defined as extension and is infinitely divisible.

b) mind (res cogitans)-- non-extended and immaterial; endowed in each of us by God, is what makes us individuals, (much like a rational soul);

4) Cartesian dualism mind and matter completely separated Mind is rational, matter is inert, lifeless, passive spirituality of the Earth completely removed now!

5) Nature is only this lifeless matter in motion; What we call "life" is merely an epiphenomenon of this matter in motion; it is not intrinsic to nature. We can call things "living," but what we really mean is that their parts are so disposed as to behave automatically in accord to physical laws of necessity; e.g. The Clockwork Universe

6) Humans distinct from Nature: Only man is endowed with mind, could act freely, but only as a mind in an automaton; animals do not have minds or reason; they are nothing more than elaborately contrived machines or automatons The Hierarchical World View